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New here? Read these four, in order.

Together they take about thirty minutes and give you the whole shape of the Reformation before you go looking for details.

  1. What is the Protestant Reformation? — the plainest definition on the site
  2. Why the Reformation dawned — what had gone wrong, and why it mattered
  3. The Five Fives — the whole movement on one page
  4. The Gospel — the thing all of it was recovering

The Story

The narrative spine. If you want to know what happened and in what order, begin here.

The six questions

  • The StoryOverview of the whole narrative
  • WhatWhat the Protestant Reformation actually was
  • WhenNotable events in a horizontal timeline
  • WhereThe cities and territories where it happened
  • WhyThe conditions that made reform necessary
  • WhoThe people God used
  • HowHow the movement actually spread

Before the Reformation

Turning points

Reform

What was being reformed, what it was reformed to, and the doctrines at stake.

The five solas

The five controversies

  • The ChurchHer history, her marks, her authority
  • AuthorityDoes the church have authority over Scripture?
  • JustificationHow can a sinner become right with God?
  • SacramentsDoes the church dispense grace through sacraments?
  • PreachingWhat is the first mark of a true church?
  • PurityHow does a Christian live with joy?

The five worldview matters

  • Worldview MattersHow the Reformation recovered a biblical worldview
  • TruthWhere knowledge comes from
  • GodWho God is and how He is known
  • ManHuman nature, dignity, and fallenness
  • RedemptionHow God saves
  • PurposeThe chief end of man

The five reminders

  • Reformation RemindersFive convictions to carry away
  • GospelScripture alone authoritatively reveals the gospel
  • GodFaith trusts in God and His righteousness
  • GraceRedemption is entirely a free gift from God
  • GoodChrist is the good in the good news
  • GloryThe chief end of God in the gospel is His glory

Movements and opponents

Church life and history

Radical Reformation studies

Roman Catholic doctrines and practices

Roman Catholic councils

  • The Council of Basel-Ferrara-Florence (1431-1449)Historical setting, debates, and decisions
  • The Council of Constance (1414-1418)The Council of Constance, 1414 to 1418: the Great Schism ended, the supremacy of councils declared, Wycliffe condemned, and Jan Hus burned in defiance of an imperial safe-conduct.
  • Roman Catholic CouncilsThe general councils of the Western church from Lateran I in 1123 to Trent in 1563: the medieval councils Rome reckons ecumenical, what each decreed, and how they set the stage for the Reformation.
  • The First Lateran Council (1123)The First Lateran Council of 1123 under Callistus II: the Concordat of Worms confirmed, clerical marriage forbidden, and the crusading indulgence renewed.
  • The Second Lateran Council (1139)The Second Lateran Council of 1139 under Innocent II: the schism of Anacletus II closed, clerical marriages declared invalid, and the Petrobrusians and Henricians condemned.
  • The Third Lateran Council (1179)The Third Lateran Council of 1179 under Alexander III: the two-thirds rule for papal elections, the condemnation of the Cathars, and the first hearing of Valdes of Lyons.
  • The Fourth Lateran Council (1215)The Fourth Lateran Council of 1215 under Innocent III: transubstantiation defined, annual confession imposed on every Christian, procedures against heretics, and the Fifth Crusade.
  • The Fifth Lateran Council (1512-1517)Historical setting, debates, and decisions
  • The First Council of Lyons (1245)The First Council of Lyons of 1245 under Innocent IV: the deposition of the Emperor Frederick II and a new crusade after the loss of Jerusalem.
  • The Second Council of Lyons (1274)The Second Council of Lyons of 1274 under Gregory X: a short-lived union with the Greek church, the filioque reaffirmed, purgatory and seven sacraments professed, and the papal conclave established.
  • The Council of Pisa (1409)The Council of Pisa of 1409: cardinals of both obediences depose the rival popes of Rome and Avignon, elect Alexander V, and leave the church with three popes.
  • The Anathemas of Trent (1547) — Full TextThe thirty-three canons on justification decreed by the Council of Trent in its sixth session, January 13, 1547, each ending with anathema sit, in the 1851 translation of Theodore Alois Buckley.
  • The Council of Trent (1545-1563)Historical setting, debates, and decisions
  • The Council of Vienne (1311-1312)Historical setting, debates, and decisions

The papacy and the popes

  • Pope Adrian VIHistorical background, teaching, and further study
  • Pope Alexander VIHistorical background, teaching, and further study
  • Pope Clement VIIHistorical background, teaching, and further study
  • Shepherding ComparisonHistorical background, teaching, and further study
  • The Popes During the ReformationHistorical background, teaching, and further study
  • PapacyHistorical background, teaching, and further study
  • Pope Leo XHistorical background, teaching, and further study
  • Pope Paul IIIHistorical background, teaching, and further study
  • Pope Paul IVGian Pietro Carafa, architect of the Roman Inquisition, who as pope issued the first papal Index of Prohibited Books.
  • Pope Pius IVThe pope who brought the Council of Trent to its close, confirmed its decrees, and imposed the Tridentine Profession of Faith.
  • Pope Pius VThe Dominican inquisitor turned pope who excommunicated Elizabeth I and fixed the Tridentine catechism, breviary, and missal.

People

God works through instruments. These are the lives He used, and the lives that surrounded them.

The five major reformers

  • ReformersWhy biography matters for the church
  • Martin Luther1483–1546 · God's Hammer, who formally ignited the Reformation
  • Ulrich Zwingli1484–1531 · God's Soldier, the Swiss shepherd and statesman
  • William Tyndale1494–1536 · God's Scholar, who gave God an English voice
  • John Calvin1509–1564 · God's Theologian, organizer of the Reformation
  • John Knox1513–1572 · God's Preacher, who feared God and no man

Forerunners

Other reformers

Women of the Reformation

Friends of the Reformation

Catholic opponents

  • The Duke of AlbaPhilip II’s iron general, whose Council of Troubles brought terror to the Protestant Netherlands.
  • Girolamo AleandroThe scholar-nuncio who burned Luther’s books in the Netherlands and the Rhineland and drafted the Edict of Worms.
  • Noël BédaThe Sorbonne’s formidable syndic, who hounded Lefèvre, Erasmus, and Berquin and demanded torture for the “false doctors.”
  • Robert BellarmineThe Jesuit cardinal whose Disputations became Rome’s standard systematic answer to Protestant theology.
  • Edmund BonnerMary’s Bishop of London, who examined, degraded, and condemned more Protestant martyrs than any other English bishop.
  • Charles BorromeoThe nephew of Pius IV who drove Trent to its finish and made Milan the model of a Counter-Reformation diocese.
  • Albrecht of BrandenburgThe young Archbishop of Mainz whose debt for his offices was paid with the St. Peter’s indulgence, and to whom Luther sent the Ninety-Five Theses.
  • Hans BraskThe last great Catholic bishop of Sweden, who fought Olaus Petri and the Reformation until he went into exile in 1527.
  • Thomas CajetanThe learned cardinal-legate who examined Luther at Augsburg in 1518 and demanded that he recant.
  • Lorenzo CampeggioThe canon lawyer and legate who organized the first Catholic league in Germany and urged Charles V to use fire and sword at Augsburg.
  • Peter CanisiusThe Jesuit “second apostle of Germany,” whose catechisms answered Luther’s for two centuries.
  • Bartolomé CarranzaThe Dominican archbishop who helped restore Catholicism in Mary’s England and was then himself imprisoned by the Spanish Inquisition for seventeen years.
  • Charles de GuiseThe Cardinal of Lorraine, head with his brother of the Guise party that led Catholic France against the Huguenots.
  • Charles VThe emperor who outlawed Luther at Worms and spent his reign trying to restore one faith to his divided empire.
  • Johannes CochlaeusThe tireless polemicist who betrayed Tyndale’s first English New Testament at Cologne and wrote the hostile life of Luther that shaped Catholic memory for centuries.
  • Gasparo ContariniThe Venetian cardinal who came nearest to agreement with the Protestants at Regensburg in 1541, and failed.
  • David BeatonThe cardinal who had George Wishart burned at St. Andrews in 1546 and was murdered there in revenge.
  • Johann EckLuther’s ablest debater, who forced him at Leipzig to side with Hus and carried the bull of excommunication into Germany.
  • Hieronymus EmserDuke George’s secretary, who waged a pamphlet war with Luther and issued a rival German New Testament built on Luther’s own.
  • Desiderius ErasmusLife, convictions, and place in Reformation history
  • Johann FabriZwingli’s friend turned foe, who represented the Bishop of Constance at Zurich and earned the name “hammer of heretics.”
  • John FisherThe scholarly Bishop of Rochester who led the English theological attack on Luther and died for refusing Henry VIII’s supremacy.
  • Stephen GardinerThe able Bishop of Winchester who led the Catholic reaction against Cranmer and, as Mary’s chancellor, revived the burning of heretics.
  • John HamiltonThe last Catholic Archbishop of St. Andrews, who burned the aged Walter Myln in 1558 and opposed the Reformation Parliament of 1560.
  • Hugo von HohenlandenbergThe Bishop of Constance, in whose diocese Zurich lay, whose mandates against Zwingli’s preaching only hastened Zurich’s break with him.
  • Stanislaus HosiusThe Polish cardinal who led the Counter-Reformation in Poland, presided at Trent, and worked to bring Sweden back to Rome.
  • Catholic Opponents of the ReformationThe major Roman Catholic opponents of the Protestant Reformation: popes, princes, bishops, inquisitors, and theologians, with a short biographical sketch of each.
  • James BeatonThe Archbishop of St. Andrews who had Patrick Hamilton burned in 1528, Scotland’s first martyr of the Reformation.
  • Pierre de la BaumeGeneva’s worldly last prince-bishop, whose flight from the city in 1533 opened the way for Farel and Calvin.
  • John LonglandThe king’s confessor and Bishop of Lincoln who led the great persecution of the Buckinghamshire Lollards in 1521.
  • Ignatius of LoyolaThe Basque soldier who founded the Jesuits, the most effective instrument of the Counter-Reformation.
  • Mary of GuiseThe French queen-regent of Scotland whose struggle with John Knox and the Protestant lords ended with her death in 1560.
  • Catherine de’ MediciThe queen mother of three French kings whose shifting policy ended in the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre of 1572.
  • Thomas MoreThe brilliant humanist and Lord Chancellor who wrote thousands of pages against Tyndale and Luther and prosecuted English evangelicals.
  • Giovanni MoroneThe diplomat-cardinal who was imprisoned by Paul IV on suspicion of heresy and then steered the Council of Trent to its close.
  • Julius PflugThe humanist bishop of Naumburg who sought reunion on Rome’s terms and helped write the Augsburg Interim of 1548.
  • Philip IIThe king who crushed the Spanish Protestants, made war on the Dutch, and sent the Armada against England.
  • Henry PhillipsThe young Englishman who befriended William Tyndale in Antwerp and betrayed him to the emperor’s officers in 1535.
  • Reginald PoleHenry VIII’s royal cousin turned cardinal, who returned as papal legate to reconcile England to Rome under Mary.
  • Sylvester PrieriasThe papal theologian whose reply to Luther made the pope, not Scripture, the infallible rule of faith.
  • Jacopo SadoletoThe eloquent cardinal whose letter urging Geneva back to Rome drew Calvin’s classic Reply in 1539.
  • Duke George of SaxonyThe bearded duke of Dresden who hosted the Leipzig Debate and became Luther’s most determined princely enemy.
  • Hieronymus SchulzLuther’s own bishop, who first counseled silence and then vowed to see the monk in the fire.
  • Johann TetzelThe Dominican indulgence preacher whose sales just beyond Wittenberg’s border provoked Luther’s Ninety-Five Theses.
  • Mary IThe Catholic queen who restored the papacy in England and under whom 288 Protestants were burned.
  • Cuthbert TunstallThe scholarly Bishop of London who turned Tyndale away, then bought up and burned his New Testaments.
  • William WarhamThe aged Archbishop of Canterbury who sought to destroy Tyndale’s New Testaments, tried Latimer, and yielded the royal supremacy “so far as the law of Christ permits.”
  • Thomas WolseyHenry VIII’s all-powerful cardinal, who burned Luther’s books in London and on his deathbed urged the king to destroy “this new pernicious sect.”

Further reformers

  • Mikael AgricolaA short biography of Mikael Agricola (c. 1509–1557), Luther’s student, translator of the Finnish New Testament, first Protestant bishop of Turku, and father of Finnish literature.
  • Nikolaus von AmsdorfLife, convictions, and place in Reformation history
  • James BainhamLife, convictions, and place in Reformation history
  • Robert BarnesA short biography of Robert Barnes (d. 1540), Augustinian prior of Cambridge, exile with Luther, envoy of Henry VIII, and martyr at Smithfield.
  • Richard BayfieldLife, convictions, and place in Reformation history
  • Louis de BerquinA short biography of Louis de Berquin (c. 1490–1529), “the most learned of the nobles,” translator of Luther and Erasmus, and martyr at Paris.
  • Theodore BezaA short biography of Theodore Beza (1519–1605), rector of the Academy of Geneva, biographer and successor of John Calvin, and counselor of the Huguenots.
  • John BradfordA short biography of John Bradford (c. 1520–1555), chaplain to Bishop Ridley, preacher of Lancashire, and martyr at Smithfield.
  • Johannes BrenzLife, convictions, and place in Reformation history
  • Johannes BugenhagenLife, convictions, and place in Reformation history
  • Wolfgang CapitoA short biography of Wolfgang Capito (1478–1541), Hebraist, preacher at Basel and Mainz, and Bucer’s colleague in the Reformation of Strasbourg.
  • Andreas CarlstadtLife, convictions, and place in Reformation history
  • Martin ChemnitzA short biography of Martin Chemnitz (1522–1586), Lutheran theologian of Brunswick, author of the Examination of the Council of Trent and a chief architect of the Formula of Concord.
  • Myles CoverdaleLife, convictions, and place in Reformation history
  • Thomas CromwellA short biography of Thomas Cromwell (c. 1485–1540), Henry VIII’s chief minister and vicegerent, patron of Tyndale’s cause and of the English Bible in every parish church.
  • Guido de BrèsA short biography of Guido de Brès (1522–1567), Reformed pastor of the Low Countries, author of the Belgic Confession, and martyr at Valenciennes.
  • John FoxeA short biography of John Foxe (1516/17–1587), Oxford scholar, exile under Mary Tudor, and author of the Actes and Monuments, popularly called Foxe’s Book of Martyrs.
  • John FrithA biographical sketch of John Frith (1503–1533), Tyndale’s friend and fellow laborer, burned at Smithfield.
  • Berchtold HallerA short biography of Berchtold Haller (1492–1536), the gentle reformer of Bern and author of the Ten Theses of the Bern Disputation of 1528.
  • Patrick HamiltonA brief biographical sketch of Patrick Hamilton (c. 1504–1528), author of Patrick’s Places and the first martyr of the Scottish Reformation.
  • Andrew HewetLife, convictions, and place in Reformation history
  • John HooperA brief biographical sketch of John Hooper (c. 1495–1555), Bishop of Gloucester and Worcester, burned at Gloucester under Queen Mary.
  • John JewelA short biography of John Jewel (1522–1571), Bishop of Salisbury, disciple of Peter Martyr Vermigli, and author of the Apology of the Church of England.
  • Justus JonasA short biography of Justus Jonas (1493–1555), Luther’s colleague at Wittenberg, translator, preacher, reformer of Halle, and witness of Luther’s death.
  • Leo JudA short biography of Leo Jud (1482–1542), Zwingli’s friend and colleague at Zurich, translator for the Zurich Bible, and catechist.
  • Jan ŁaskiLife, convictions, and place in Reformation history
  • Hugh LatimerA short biography of Hugh Latimer (c. 1485–1555), converted through Thomas Bilney, Bishop of Worcester, preacher to Edward VI, and martyr at Oxford with Nicholas Ridley.
  • Clément MarotA short biography of Clément Marot (c. 1496–1544), court poet of Francis I and Margaret of Navarre, whose metrical psalms began the Huguenot Psalter completed by Beza.
  • Andrew MelvilleA short biography of Andrew Melville (1545–1622), Scottish Reformer and educator, father of Scottish Presbyterianism, who told James VI that Christ alone is King of the church.
  • Wolfgang MusculusA short biography of Wolfgang Musculus (1497–1563), Benedictine monk turned reformer, pastor at Augsburg, and professor of theology at Bern.
  • Oswald MyconiusA short biography of Oswald Myconius (1488–1552), schoolmaster, Zwingli’s friend and first biographer, and chief pastor of Basel after Oecolampadius.
  • Johannes OecolampadiusA short biography of Johannes Oecolampadius (1482–1531), reformer of Basel, friend of Zwingli, and defender of the Reformed doctrine of the Lord’s Supper at Marburg.
  • Caspar OlevianusA short biography of Caspar Olevianus (1536–1587), the preacher of Trier and Heidelberg who shared in the making of the Heidelberg Catechism and ended his days at Herborn.
  • Pierre Robert OlivétanA short biography of Pierre Robert Olivétan (d. 1538), Calvin’s cousin, the first evangelist of Geneva, and translator of the first French Protestant Bible of 1535.
  • Other ReformersLife, convictions, and place in Reformation history
  • Matthew ParkerA brief biographical sketch of Matthew Parker (1504–1575), Archbishop of Canterbury under Elizabeth I.
  • Olaus and Laurentius PetriLife, convictions, and place in Reformation history
  • Casiodoro de ReinaLife, convictions, and place in Reformation history
  • Urbanus RhegiusA short biography of Urbanus Rhegius (1489–1541), preacher at Augsburg, superintendent of Lüneburg, and author of a handbook for preachers.
  • Nicholas RidleyA short biography of Nicholas Ridley (c. 1500–1555), Master of Pembroke Hall, Bishop of London, and martyr at Oxford with Hugh Latimer.
  • John RogersA brief biographical sketch of John Rogers (c. 1500–1555), Tyndale’s friend, editor of the Matthew Bible, and the first martyr of Queen Mary’s reign.
  • Hans TausenA short biography of Hans Tausen (1494–1561), “the Luther of Denmark,” preacher at Viborg and Copenhagen and bishop of Ribe.
  • Rowland TaylorA short biography of Rowland Taylor (d. 1555), Rector of Hadleigh in Suffolk, friend of Cranmer, and martyr on Aldham Common.
  • Primož TrubarA short biography of Primož Trubar (1508–1586), reformer of Carniola and father of the Slovene written language.
  • Zacharias UrsinusA short biography of Zacharias Ursinus (1534–1583), pupil of Melanchthon and Vermigli, professor at Heidelberg, and principal author of the Heidelberg Catechism.
  • Joachim VadianA short biography of Joachim Vadian (1484–1551), humanist, physician, and burgomaster who led the Reformation of St. Gall.
  • Cipriano de ValeraLife, convictions, and place in Reformation history
  • Peter Martyr VermigliA short biography of Peter Martyr Vermigli (1499–1562), the Florentine prior who fled the Inquisition and taught Reformed theology at Strasbourg, Oxford, and Zurich.
  • Hendrik Voes and Johann van EsschenA short account of Hendrik Voes and Johann van Esschen, Augustinian friars of Antwerp burned at Brussels on July 1, 1523, the first martyrs of the Reformation.
  • William WhittinghamA short biography of William Whittingham (c. 1524–1579), Marian exile, Knox’s successor at Geneva, chief editor of the Geneva Bible, and Dean of Durham.
  • George WishartA short biography of George Wishart (c. 1513–1546), Scottish preacher and martyr, the teacher of John Knox, burned at St. Andrews by Cardinal David Beaton.

Forerunners: index

Friends: index and further lives

  • Friends of the ReformationHistorical background, teaching, and further study
  • William of OrangeA short biography of William of Orange (1533–1584), leader of the Dutch Revolt against Philip II, convert to the Reformed faith, and protector of the Reformed churches of the Netherlands.

Writings of the reformers

More women of the Reformation

  • Anne AskewA short biography of Anne Askew (1521–1546), Lincolnshire gentlewoman, student of the English Bible, and martyr at Smithfield under Henry VIII.
  • Catherine ParrA short biography of Catherine Parr (1512–1548), sixth wife of Henry VIII, evangelical author, and protector of the Reformation at the English court.

The Bible

The book at the center of it all — how it came into English, and what it cost.

The English Bible

Scripture and memory

Bible history, translations, and texts

Legacy

What the Reformation left behind, in the church and in the world.

In the church

In the world

  • World ImpactHow the gospel reshaped a civilization
  • CivicsGovernment, liberty, and the rule of law
  • EducationLiteracy, schools, and universal schooling
  • SocietyMarriage, family, and care for the poor
  • CommerceVocation, work, and economic life
  • CultureLanguage, music, and the arts
  • ThanksgivingThe Reformation roots of the American holiday

Movements and their legacy

  • Buried with Him, Raised with Him: The Particular BaptistsHistorical background, teaching, and further study
  • The HuguenotsHistorical background, teaching, and further study
  • The HussitesThe Hussites, the followers of Jan Hus in Bohemia: their rise after Constance, notable facts, characteristic teaching, the Unity of the Brethren, and their connection to Luther and the Reformation.
  • The LollardsHistorical background, teaching, and further study
  • The English PuritansHistorical background, teaching, and further study
  • NonconformityHistorical background, teaching, and further study
  • Rise of PresbyterianismThe rise of Presbyterianism among the English Puritans: Thomas Cartwright, the Admonition to the Parliament, the classical movement, Hampton Court, and the Westminster Assembly.
  • The SeparatistsThe English Separatists, from the first gathered churches and Robert Browne to the martyrdoms of 1593, the Scrooby congregation, Leyden, the Mayflower, and the first Thanksgiving at Plymouth.
  • ThanksgivingHistorical background, teaching, and further study
  • The WaldensiansThe Waldensians, the Poor Men of Lyons: their rise under Peter Waldo, notable facts, characteristic teaching, and their union with the Protestant Reformation at Chanforan in 1532.

Catechisms

Reformation councils and assemblies

Confessions and full texts

Theological studies

Study Tools

Interactive tools, reading lists, and everything built for teaching.

Timelines

Maps and visuals

Reading

Printing maps

More articles

Conference resources

Reformation by country

Terms and definitions

  • Glossary of TermsA glossary of the theological terms and historical names of the Protestant Reformation, defined for readers new to them from Scripture, the Reformers, and the Reformed and Baptist confessions.

More interactive maps

About

Who publishes this site and why.