Impact on Society

lose the monasteries and you must answer two questions the monasteries had been answering for a thousand years: who cares for the poor, and what is the highest form of Christian life? The Reformation's answers reshaped the West.

The medieval church had a settled arrangement. Celibacy was holier than marriage, the cloister holier than the shop, and charity flowed through religious houses funded by endowments and the alms of those buying merit. Dismantle that, and something must take its place. What the Reformers put there was the married household, the deacon, and the doctrine that a milkmaid's work is as holy as a monk's.

Marriage Recovered

Luther opened the argument in 1522 with The Estate of Marriage, and his complaint was that marriage had fallen into disrepute. Parents, he wrote, were steering children away from marriage and into priesthood and nunnery by dwelling on the troubles of married life — providing them, in his phrase, with ease for the body and hell for the soul.

Three changes followed, and together they remade domestic life in Protestant Europe.

Marriage ceased to be a sacrament and became an honorable estate. That sounds like a demotion and was the opposite. Under the old arrangement marriage was a sacrament and also a concession to weakness, ranked beneath virginity. The Reformers denied it was a sacrament while insisting it was a divine institution, ordained at creation and good in itself — not a remedy for those who could not manage something better.

The clergy married. Zwingli married secretly in 1522 and publicly in 1524. Luther married Katharina von Bora, a former nun, on June 13, 1525, with Bugenhagen officiating. Calvin married Idelette de Bure in 1540. In England, Parliament removed the prohibition in 1548 and legitimized the children of clergy in 1551. The marital status of ministers became, and remains, the most visible line between Rome and the churches of the Reformation.

The parsonage became a model household. This was unplanned and enormously consequential. For the first time the community's spiritual leader lived a domestic life in public view — a wife, children, meals, sickness, money worries. The Luther household in the old Augustinian cloister, with Katharina running the brewery, the garden, the livestock, and a house full of students and boarders, became the pattern for the Protestant manse and, through it, for a whole idea of family life.

The Household as the Smallest Church

If the monastery is no longer where serious Christianity happens, then it has to happen at home. The Reformers said so explicitly and built for it.

Every part of Luther's Small Catechism carries the heading that the head of the family should teach it in the simplest way to his household, and the book supplies morning and evening prayers, grace at table, and the Table of Duties listing the Scriptures addressed to each station of life — husbands, wives, parents, children, employers, workers, widows, magistrates. Calvin's Geneva examined children publicly before admitting them to the Lord's Table. The father was made a teacher, and the home was made a school.

This is the same conviction that produced the parish school, and it explains why the Reformation's social effects reach so far beyond church attendance. It relocated religious formation from an institution most people never entered to the one everybody lived in.

The Common Chest

The poor relief problem was immediate. Monastic endowments were being dissolved, and the alms economy built on purchased merit had been repudiated. Luther's answer came early: in 1523 he wrote a preface for the Ordinance of a Common Chest drawn up by the congregation at Leisnig, pooling the resources of dissolved religious houses into a fund administered by the congregation for the poor, for schooling, and for the support of ministers — with begging prohibited.

Similar ordinances followed in Wittenberg, Nuremberg, Strasbourg under Bucer, and across the Protestant cities. The common chest is the ancestor of a great deal of modern welfare administration: a standing public fund, locally managed, with named officers accountable for it, replacing scattered private almsgiving.

The Bourse Française

Geneva's version is the best documented, and it arose under real pressure. Between 1550 and 1560 an estimated sixty thousand refugees passed through the city, most of them French Protestants fleeing persecution. The social strain was severe.

Two institutions are easily run together here, and the distinction matters. Geneva already had the Hôpital Général, created on November 14, 1535 — a year before Calvin arrived — when the General Council merged the city's seven existing charitable establishments into one, later housed in the requisitioned convent of the Poor Clares. That was the civic fund, supported publicly, for Geneva's own poor. The Bourse Française was something else: a parallel fund for the French refugees, and for strangers generally who did not qualify for public aid, raised from wealthy exiles and a network of donors abroad, and taking no money from the state. Both were administered by deacons under the Ecclesiastical Ordinances, which is why the two are so often confused.² The distinction sharpens the point rather than softening it: the Bourse is the clearest case in the century of the church's own ministry of mercy operating on its own resources, answerable to its own officers.

Calvin's conviction was that the church's compassion is best expressed through its ordained deacons — that mercy is an office, not an impulse. The Bourse Française, staffed by those deacons, housed orphans, the elderly, and the incapacitated; sheltered the sick; cared for cases of abandonment; supported the terminally ill and afterward their children; and ministered to widows and their dependents. It provided interim subsidies and job training, and on occasion supplied the tools or materials an able-bodied person needed to take up an honest trade. Within a generation the deacons had learned to tell recipients plainly that the goal was a return to work as soon as possible.

Historical studies suggest that this ecclesiastical institution was a precursor of the voluntary societies of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries in the West.¹ Hall goes further, suggesting that this mercy ministry may have had nearly as much influence in Calvin's Europe as his theology had elsewhere.

Calvin took it personally enough to leave part of his own family inheritance, in his will, to the boys' school and to poor immigrants. And he tied the diaconate to the credibility of the whole Reformation. Preaching on 1 Timothy 3, he argued that if we want to be considered Christians, and want it believed that there is a church among us, this organization must be demonstrated and maintained. Elsewhere he put it as a challenge:

Do we want to show that there is reformation among us? We must begin at this point, that is, there must be pastors who bear purely the doctrine of salvation, and then deacons who have the care of the poor. John Calvin

Bucer said the same more sharply: without the diaconate there can be no true communion of saints. Sound preaching and care for the poor were not two programs. They were the two halves of one claim to be a church.

Principles of the Reform

David Hall summarizes the pattern of Genevan welfare in eight principles:³

Two of these are worth pausing over, because they are the ones a modern reader will argue with. That aid ran through the church rather than the magistrate was a matter of conviction about which institution can properly attach moral expectations to help. And that assistance was temporary reflects the belief that restoring a person to useful work is part of the mercy, not a condition placed upon it.

Work as Calling

Before the Reformation, calling was a word for what happened to clergy and religious. The Reformers applied it to everyone.

Work has inherent dignity given by the Creator, and any lawful labor — farming, teaching, governing, trade — is a genuine calling from God, as sacred as the ministry. Calvin argued the point from the fourth commandment: God commanded rest on the seventh day and thereby commanded work on the other six. Labor is not a curse to be escaped but the ordinary shape of a life lived before God.

The consequence was the retirement of the sacred and secular distinction that had organized medieval life. Work was to be done to the glory of God — not as a slave to a taskmaster but as a son to a Father. Johann Sebastian Bach signing his scores SDG, soli Deo gloria, is that doctrine applied to a craft.

The economic consequences of this shift are taken up on the commerce page.

Accountability

Geneva's Consistory held men accountable for drunkenness, quarreling, absence from worship, and domestic conduct. The records show it doing something almost no other institution of the age did: it summoned husbands who beat their wives, and it treated the complaint as serious. In a legal culture where a wife had little recourse, a body that would call a man in and hold him to account was a real protection.

The Reformers also parted from Rome on divorce, permitting it for adultery and for malicious desertion. Marriage was a covenant, and a covenant can be broken by the party who abandons it. Geneva's marriage ordinances gave wives grounds their mothers had not had.

Education Next: Commerce