Impact on Civics
imited government, separation of powers, elected magistrates,
written constitutions, and the right to resist tyranny were not invented in
Philadelphia in 1787. Most of them were argued from pulpits, and several were
practiced in a small Swiss city, more than two centuries earlier.
The government structure of the United States owes far more to the Reformation than most people realize. Writing in the middle of the nineteenth century, the Harvard historian George Bancroft ranked John Calvin among “the foremost of modern republican legislators,” the man responsible for elevating Geneva into “the impregnable fortress of popular liberty, the fertile seed-plot of democracy.” Bancroft credited the free institutions of America as being derived chiefly from Calvinism through the medium of Puritanism, tracing that legacy among the Plymouth pilgrims, the Huguenot settlers of South Carolina, and the Dutch colonists of Manhattan. His conclusion was blunt: he that will not honor the memory and respect the influence of Calvin knows but little of the origin of American liberty.1
That is a large claim, and it needs evidence rather than repetition. What follows is the case, drawn substantially from the work of David W. Hall, who has documented it more thoroughly than anyone writing today — followed by the honest cautions that any careful reader should carry alongside it.
Geneva as a Political Laboratory
Calvin never held civil office in Geneva and did not become a citizen until 1559, five years before his death. His influence on the city's government came through the pulpit, through the Ecclesiastical Ordinances of 1541, and through his service on the committee that revised the Genevan Edicts in 1542. What emerged was a working model that Europe had not seen.
The decisive procedural safeguard came with the civic reform of 1543. Under a proviso adopted the previous year, nothing could be laid before the Council of Two Hundred that had not first been dealt with in the Narrow Council, and nothing before the General Council without having passed both. No branch of local government could act on its own authority. Hall's observation is worth weighing: this early republican mechanism, which prevented the consolidation of all governmental power into a single council, predated Montesquieu's doctrine of the separation of powers by two centuries.2
The elections were equally striking for their day. The citizens elected four syndics each year from a slate of eight, for a fixed annual term, and the various councils were themselves elected. An appellate system was in place by the late 1540s. Municipal offices carried no salary and no profit — in sharp contrast to medieval custom — and service was so evidently a burden rather than a prize that the city had to threaten a fine against citizens who refused to serve after being elected.
Read that last detail again. A political culture in which office is unpaid, term- limited, subject to review by two other bodies, and reluctantly accepted is not a culture that has produced professional rulers. It is the practical outworking of a doctrine about what human beings are.
Calvin on the Limits of Power
Calvin's 1561 sermon on 1 Samuel 8 is the single best window into his political thought, and it is a sermon, not a treatise — which is itself the point.3 These ideas reached ordinary people because they were preached.
He began by observing that Israel, even at the last moment before electing a king, remained free to change its mind; the kingship was therefore optional rather than divinely required. He then drove at the limits God places on rulers. There are bounds prescribed by God to the power of kings, Calvin preached, within which they ought to be satisfied: to work for the common good, to govern in fairness and justice, not to be puffed up with their own importance, but to remember that they too are subjects of God.
His distinction between a tyrant and a legitimate ruler is the hinge of the whole tradition that follows: a tyrant rules only by his own will and lust, whereas legitimate magistrates rule by counsel and by reason, so as to determine how to bring about the greatest public welfare. Kings are not to undertake war rashly, nor ambitiously to increase their wealth, nor to govern their subjects on the basis of personal opinion. Calvin decried the oppressive custom of magistrates taking part in the plundering to enrich themselves off the poor.
On the election of rulers he was, for 1561, remarkable. Commenting on Deuteronomy 1:14–16, where Moses appoints judges, Calvin argued that they were not appointed merely by the will of Moses but elected by the votes of the people:
And this is the most desirable kind of liberty, that we should not be compelled to obey every person who may be tyrannically put over our heads; but which allows of election, so that no one should rule except he be approved by us. John Calvin
Calvin read the counsel of Jethro in Exodus 18 the same way — as a representative and republican form of government, and one that did not originate in the mind of man. It is not an accident that Geneva's smallest council, the Council of Twenty-Five, was also called the Senate.
The Doctrine of Man and the Case for Checks
Underneath every structural safeguard lies a doctrine, and it is the doctrine this site returns to everywhere else: what human beings actually are.
The rationale for dispersing authority across several councils was simple and scriptural. Even the best of leaders could think blindly and selfishly, and therefore needed a format for mutual correction and accountability. A theology that takes original sin seriously cannot entrust unchecked power to anyone, however godly, and will build machinery on the assumption that rulers will fail.
This is the Reformation's most durable political contribution, and it survived the loss of the theology that produced it. When James Madison wrote in Federalist 51 that if men were angels no government would be necessary, and that the great difficulty is first to enable the government to control the governed and then to oblige it to control itself, he was reasoning exactly as the Genevans had — from a low estimate of human nature to a structural remedy.
Optimistic anthropologies build different governments. The French Revolution, working from Rousseau's conviction that man is naturally good and corrupted only by institutions, concentrated power in the name of the general will and produced the Terror. Two revolutions, two doctrines of man, two outcomes.
The Right of Resistance
Calvin himself was cautious. In the closing pages of the Institutes he denies any right of private individuals to resist a tyrant, but allows — and this small opening proved enormous — that lesser magistrates appointed to restrain the monarch not only may but must oppose a ruler who tramples on the people. Everything after builds on that hinge.
His successors, working under persecution, developed it rapidly. John Ponet, an English exile, published A Short Treatise of Politike Power in 1556. Christopher Goodman argued in 1558 that superior powers may forfeit obedience. John Knox pressed the case in Scotland. François Hotman's Francogallia of 1573 recovered an elective ancient constitution for France. After the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre, Theodore Beza wrote The Right of Magistrates in 1574, and the anonymous Vindiciae contra tyrannos appeared at Basel in 1579 — usually assigned to Duplessis-Mornay and Languet, and perhaps the most important defense of resistance produced in the century. George Buchanan's De Iure Regni apud Scotos came the same year.
Two features of this literature matter for what followed. It grounded resistance in law and office rather than in private conscience, vesting it in the lesser magistrate — which is why it produced constitutions rather than mobs. And it argued that authority is held on trust: a ruler cannot claim more than the people were able to confer, and no one can give what he does not possess.
Hall's judgment is that Beza served as something like the point guard for the American Revolution — and he notes the irony that Thomas Jefferson, no friend of Calvinism, took as his personal motto a slogan handed down from Knoxian Calvinists: rebellion to tyrants is obedience to God.
Covenant, Compact, and Federalism
The Reformed doctrine of the covenant did more political work than any other piece of its theology. A covenant is a binding agreement, entered freely, with stipulations on both sides and God as witness. Once a people is accustomed to thinking of its relation to God in those terms, it will think about its relation to its rulers in the same terms.
Johannes Althusius gave this its fullest theoretical form in the Politica of 1603, building society from families upward through guilds, towns, and provinces to the commonwealth, each with its own sphere and none absorbed by the one above it. That is federalism — the word itself comes from foedus, covenant. Samuel Rutherford's Lex, Rex of 1644 put the same conviction in its sharpest form: the law is king.
The practical results appeared quickly and in writing. The Dutch Act of Abjuration of 1581 deposed Philip II on the ground that a prince who does not protect his subjects has broken the terms on which he holds office. The Mayflower Compact of 1620 was drawn up by a congregation accustomed to covenanting into church membership, doing the same thing for civil purposes. The Fundamental Orders of Connecticut of 1639, following Thomas Hooker's sermon that the foundation of authority is laid in the free consent of the people, is often described as the first written constitution in the modern world.
Crossing the Atlantic
The transmission was not abstract. Reformed and Calvinistic people settled much of colonial America and brought their church order with them — and Presbyterian church government is a federal system with elected officers, graded courts, and a right of appeal. A people who elect elders and send commissioners to a synod are already practiced in representative government.
New England's election sermons made the point annually from the pulpit for a century and a half. John Witherspoon, a Scottish Presbyterian minister and president of Princeton, was the only clergyman to sign the Declaration of Independence, and he taught a generation of the founding class, James Madison among them. British observers noticed. The rebellion was called a Presbyterian revolt in London, and Horace Walpole is traditionally credited with the remark that cousin America had run off with a Presbyterian parson.
Robert Kingdon, writing as a historian rather than an advocate, put the case at its most careful and perhaps its most persuasive: whatever one concludes about causation, one should at least acknowledge the striking correlation, in both time and place, between the spread of Calvinist Protestantism and the rise of democracy.4
What Geneva Bequeathed
Gathering the threads, the Reformation introduced or recovered the following principles of polity, most of them visible in Geneva before they were argued anywhere else:
- The Reformed view of human nature gave specific ground for a fixed limit on human government
- It prevented the consolidation of all governmental power into a single council
- It anticipated many later instances of political federalism
- It imposed limitations on terms, and introduced checks and balances and the separation of powers, two centuries before Montesquieu
- It offered election by residents
- It established an appellate system
- It insisted that government exists to serve the public good
- It opposed holding office for personal benefit, and made offices unpaid
- It taught and stimulated personal responsibility and responsible citizenship
- It helped elected governors perceive themselves as having a duty to God
- It contributed to freedom of speech, assembly, and dissent as its Dutch, British, and Scottish heirs refined these ideas
- It transformed civil government above all by insisting that accountability to God lies at the heart of good polity
This history is worth telling accurately, which means conceding its imperfections. The Reformation did not hand the modern world a constitution; it handed the modern world a doctrine of man, a doctrine of redemption, and a conviction that every earthly authority answers to God. Those three convictions, worked out over two centuries by people who took them seriously, produced the fruit we still enjoy today.
